BENGALNATIONDAILY

Groups tend to develop a set of words or culture types that express their values, identity, and goals. The rhetorical critic Richard Weaver called one such set of words “god and devil terms.”Identity Words. Groups tend to develop a set of words or culture types that express their values, identity, and goals. The rhetorical critic Richard Weaver called one such set of words “god and devil terms.” He suggested that progress was the primary “god term” of American culture in the mid- twentieth century.

People were willing to do almost anything to achieve the benefits the word suggested. Other terms of the 1950s, such as science, modem, and efficient, enjoyed similar power because they were rooted in American values. On the other hand, words like Communist and un-American were “devil terms.” Devil terms strengthen group ties by suggesting what we are not. Culturetypes can change over time: By the mid-1970s, words like natural, peace, and communication were emerging god terms; liberal and pollution were emerging devil terms.
Other words also seem charged with unusual power, perhaps because they refer to basic needs. The term security expresses our desire for safe, stable surroundings. According to political scientist Murray Edelman, expressions like “national security” and “social security” have a kind of built-in resonance that makes the programs they advance hard to resist.23 “Home security systems” may seem like an especially good investment, even when they are expensive. Communication scholar Michael Calvin McGee has also introduced the idea of ideographs, special words that express a country’s basic political beliefs.24 McGee suggests that words like freedom, liberty, and democracy are important because they are shorthand expressions of political identity. Expressions like “freedom fighters” or “democracy in action” have unusual power because they use ideographs. But one person’s “freedom fighter” can be another person’s “terrorist.” We need to look behind such glittering words to inspect the agendas they may hide.
In addition to national culturetypes, you should also consider whether there may be special words that express group identity for your audience. In what does your school take pride? Who are its rivals? One student at Indiana University strengthened her appeal for blood donations by arguing: “Purdue students have done it—why can’t we?” Presumably, student speakers at Purdue University could use Indiana in the same way.
Culturetypes add strength to a speech when used ethically. They remind
us of our heritage and suggest that we must be true to that identity. However,
you must prove that they are properly applied to your topic.
He suggested that progress was the primary “god term” of American culture in the mid- twentieth century. People were willing to do almost anything to achieve the benefits the word suggested. Other terms of the 1950s, such as science, modem, and efficient, enjoyed similar power because they were rooted in American values. On the other hand, words like Communist and un-American were “devil terms.” Devil terms strengthen group ties by suggesting what we are not. Culturetypes can change over time: By the mid-1970s, words like natural, peace, and communication were emerging god terms; liberal and pollution were emerging devil terms.
Other words also seem charged with unusual power, perhaps because they refer to basic needs. The term security expresses our desire for safe, stable surroundings. According to political scientist Murray Edelman, expressions like “national security” and “social security” have a kind of built-in resonance that makes the programs they advance hard to resist. “Home security systems” may seem like an especially good investment, even when they are expensive. Communication scholar Michael Calvin McGee has also introduced the idea of ideographs, special words that express a country’s basic political beliefs. McGee suggests that words like freedom, liberty, and democracy are important because they are shorthand expressions of political identity. Expressions like “freedom fighters” or “democracy in action” have unusual power because they use ideographs. But one person’s “freedom fighter” can be another person’s “terrorist.” We need to look behind such glittering words to inspect the agendas they may hide.
In addition to national culturetypes, you should also consider whether there may be special words that express group identity for your audience. In what does your school take pride? Who are its rivals? One student at Indiana University strengthened her appeal for blood donations by arguing: “Purdue students have done it—why can’t we?” Presumably, student speakers at Purdue University could use Indiana in the same way.
Culturetypes add strength to a speech when used ethically. They remind us of our heritage and suggest that we must be true to that identity. However, you must prove that they are properly applied to your topic.

The storm metaphor is often used when describing catastrophes. Quite often the storm occurs at sea—a dangerous place under the best of conditions. The student speaker who argued that “our society is cut adrift—it has lost its moorings, and we don’t see the dark cloud on our horizon” used these metaphors in combination to give dramatic expression to his fears of the future.

Some words draw on experiences that persist across the generations and that cross most cultural boundaries. They express many of the needs , and can be especially useful for diverse groups. Among them is a set of metaphors that seem especially powerful and popular in speeches. These metaphors connect their particular, time bound subjects with timeless themes: With light and darkness, storms, the sea, disease, war, the impulse to build, the family, and space. They tap into the human experience. A brief look at three of these metaphors demonstrates their potential power in communication.
Light and Darkness. From the beginnings of time, people have made negative associations with darkness. The dark is cold, unfriendly, and dangerous. On the other hand, light brings warmth and safety. It restores one’s sense of control. When speakers use the light-darkness metaphor, they usually equate problems or bad times with darkness and solutions or recovery with light.

The organization of the body of the speech will vary according to the subject and purpose. If a speech tells you how to do something—for instance, how to plan a budget—its main points should follow the order of the process that it describes. If the subject breaks naturally into parts, such as the three major causes of global warming, speakers can use a categorical design to present them.
A variety of concluding techniques can be used to end a speech. If speakers have covered several main points in the body, they should summarize them and then make a final statement that will help the audience remember the essence of the message.
Effective speeches also contain transitions that link together the various parts of the speech. Transitions bridge ideas and aid understanding. They signal that something different is coming and help the speech flow better. Transitions should be used between the introduction and body of a speech, between the body and the conclusion, and between the main points within the body.

A speech has substance when it has a worthwhile message that is supported by facts and figures, testimony, examples, and/or narratives. The starting point for a substantive presentation is a well-chosen topic that interests both speaker and listeners, once they are shown how it affects their lives. Generally, speakers should already know something about the topics they select. This knowledge serves as the foundation for further research that enables them to speak responsibly and authoritatively. While personal experiences are a valuable source of information, speakers should always validate, update, and broaden such experience with research or interviews with knowledgeable people.
Speakers add substance by weaving reliable information into the fabric of their speeches. Facts and figures give precise focus to a speaker’s points. Testimony adds the authority and prestige of others to the speaker’s claims. Such testimony from knowledgeable or respected others can include expert opinions or eloquent quotations. At other times, speakers may rely on lay testimony from ordinary people with whom listeners might identify. For example, the opinions of other students might be meaningful on issues that pertain to campus life. Examples can help you understand better what speakers are talking about. Narratives can engage the audience by telling some colorful story that illustrates the speaker’s message.
Skillful speakers often combine different types of supporting material to make their points more accessible to listeners. Combining statistical data with an example can make ideas more clear and compelling. For instance, a speaker might say, “The base of the Great Pyramid at Giza measures 756 feet on each side.” While precise, this may be difficult for you to visualize. But what if the speaker adds, “More than eleven football fields could fit in its base.” Aha! This example gives you a concrete point of reference by comparing the unfamiliar or hard to understand with something you can relate to.

A good speech is carefully planned so that it carries you through an orderly progression of ideas, making it easy for you to follow. Without a good design, a speech may seem to consist of random ideas that have been thrown together willy-nilly. A worthwhile message can get lost in the confusion. There are three main parts to every message: an introduction, the body of the speech, and a conclusion. The introduction should arouse interest in the topic and preview the message to follow. The body of the speech presents a speaker’s main ideas and the supporting material needed to develop them. The conclusion should summarize the main points, reflect upon the meaning of the message, and provide a sense of closure.
The introduction may begin with an example, a quotation, or a question that draws you into the topic, such as “So you think there’s no need to worry about global warming?” Once speakers gain their listeners’ attention, they will usually prepare the listeners for what is to come by focusing on their purpose and previewing the main points.

Perhaps the most important measure of a speech is whether it is good or bad for you. An ethical speech demonstrates respect for the audience, responsible knowledge, and concern for the consequences of exposure to the message.
Respect for the audience means that speakers are sensitive to the cultural composition of their audience and are aware that well-meaning people often hold varying positions on an issue. Ethical speakers try not to offend others unnecessarily even as they dispute their arguments or question their information. .
Ethical speakers base their messages on responsible knowledge of their subject. They assess the accuracy and objectivity of their sources of information, and watch for potential bias. They are sensitive to their own prejudices and try to be accurate and objective in their presentation of information. Ethical speakers try not to pass off opinions and inferences as facts. An ethical speaker will report the sources of factual data and ideas, especially if this information runs counter to what is generally believed. Finally, ethical speakers do not fabricate data or present the ideas or words of others without acknowledging their contributions.
Ethical speakers are aware that words have consequences. Inflammatory language can arouse strong feelings in audience members that sometimes block constructive deliberation. Ethical speakers think through the possible ramifications of their messages before they present them. The greater the possible consequences, the more carefully speakers must assess the potential effects of their messages, support what they say with credible evidence, and temper their conclusions with regard for listener sensitivities.

Any speech worth listening to will bring something new to you. The topic should be fresh and interesting. If the topic has been overused, then the speech must be innovative to sustain attention. One frequently overused topic for persuasive speeches is drinking and driving. When speakers choose such a topic, they can’t simply reiterate the common advice “if you drink, don’t drive” and expect to be effective. The audience will have heard that message hundreds of times. To get through to listeners on such a subject, speakers have to find a fresh way to present the material. One student of ours gave a speech on “responsible drinking and driving” that stressed the importance of understanding the effects of alcohol and of knowing your own tolerance limits. Her fresh approach and important information gave us a new perspective on an old problem.

Beyond a general purpose, a speech should also have a specific purpose. For example, an informative speech may have the specific purpose of increasing listeners’ knowledge of the causes of global warming. The specific purpose of a speech will typically be evident by the time the speaker finishes the introduction, and must be unmistakably clear by the time the speaker begins the conclusion.
A speech that lacks a clear sense of purpose will seem to drift and wander as though it were a boat without a rudder, blown this way and that by whatever thought occurs to the speaker. Developing a clear purpose begins with the speaker considering audience needs. Speakers must determine precisely what they want to accomplish: what they want listeners to learn, think, or do as a result of their speeches.

For a speech to be effective, it must meet the particular requirements of the assignment and be adapted to the listeners’ needs. An assignment will typically specify the general purpose of the speech: an informative speech that aims at extending your understanding of a topic, a persuasive speech that attempts to influence your attitudes or actions, or a ceremonial speech that celebrates shared values. The assignment may also specify time limits, the number of references required, and the manner of presentation (such as a required presentation aid or extemporaneous mode of speech).
Effective speakers are listener-centered. This means that as speakers plan and prepare their messages, they should weigh each technique and each piece of supporting material in terms of its appropriateness for the particular audience. Will this example interest listeners? Is this information important for them to know? How can the speaker best involve the audience with the topic? The close involvement of subject, speaker, and listener, called identification, is vital for effective speaking. One way in which speakers can invite identification is to ask involving questions at the beginning of a speech:
“Have you ever thought about what it would mean not to have electricity?” Also, the pronoun we used artfully throughout a speech may draw audience, speaker, and subject closer together.